Trying my hand at hymn composition:
Pascal’s wager: a reasoned argument for why you should give up reason
First read "Pascal's Wager" here, specifically Section 233. This is an excerpt from a larger work, Penseés, written by Blaise Pascal (published posthumously in 1670), and translated in 1931 by W.F. Trotter. All the quotations below are from Section 233 of the above work.
Blaise Pascal attempts to use reason to persuade us to choose faith in God: he supposes that any reasonable person would choose to wager in favor of faith. Yet the way he states his famous wager – that when we wager in favor of belief we sacrifice nothing and gain everything – ignores the real sacrifice one must make in order to turn away from agnosticism and accept as true the far-fetched myths of monotheistic religion: one’s reason. So he hopes our reason will lead us to embrace faith, which requires that we give up our reason.
Pascal’s main argument takes the form of a wager: we must bet that God exists because we have nothing to lose and everything to gain. As Pascal puts it: “Yes; but you must wager. It is not optional. You are embarked… Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering that God is. Let us estimate these two chances. If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing. Wager then without hesitation that He is.” The potential penalty for failing to believe is either eternal torture in Hell or soul death (Pascal does not explicitly say this, though it is implicit in his wager: if all were automatically granted heavenly eternal life after death, there would be no need for faith, and no need for the wager), while the sacrifice for choosing faith is negligible. Since our eternal souls are potentially at risk, and it costs us so little to wager in favor of faith, and we have so much to gain (eternal life) if Christianity proves true, any reasonable person must choose belief in God; reason leads us directly to faith.
Yet Pascal acknowledges that reason is the very thing we must sacrifice in order to embrace faith: “when one is forced to play, he must renounce reason to preserve his life…” So in order to accept the wager we must give up reason, but also we give up nothing. Pascal never acknowledges how momentous this sacrifice really is. Reason may well be an agnostic’s most cherished tool, the defining feature of his personality, the very thing that separates man from beast. Pascal argues that we must give it up, yet he misunderstands what this actually means to someone who cherishes it so dearly: he argues that giving up reason is the equivalent of giving up nothing. Speaking to the agnostic, Pascal says, “at each step you take on this road, you will see so great certainty of gain, so much nothingness in what you risk, that you will at last recognize that you have wagered for something certain and infinite, for which you have given nothing.” Pascal, himself a philosopher (this is what astounds me) thinks that when we abandon reason we sacrifice nothing of importance, a mere trifle. The truth is this: asking a science-loving agnostic to give up his reason is like asking a religious fanatic to abandon his faith: it is asking someone to abandon what is most precious to him, what defines him; it is the very lens through which one views his world. For an agnostic, reason is not nothing, it is everything.
Pascal bolsters the power of his wager with a moral argument, which is also designed to persuade the reasonable person: faith increases one’s moral goodness, and so it is good even if God turns out not to be real. A believer, through her faith, transforms herself from a sinner ruled by her passions into a new person who is “faithful, honest, humble, grateful, generous, a sincere friend, truthful.” Simply by becoming Christian, one becomes a better person. In fact, abatement of one’s passions is a backdoor to faith: “Endeavour then to convince yourself, not by increase of proofs of God, but by the abatement of your passions. You would like to attain faith, and do not know the way; you would like to cure yourself of unbelief, and ask the remedy for it. Learn of those who have been bound like you, and who now stake all their possessions. These are people who know the way which you would follow, and who are cured of an ill of which you would be cured… it is this which will lessen the passions, which are your stumbling-blocks.” So by faith we avoid Hell, become better people, and escape the grip of our passions; by escaping the grip of our passions (our stumbling blocks) we can achieve faith and thereby avoid Hell. It’s such a simple process, a perfect circle.
These arguments are riddled with weaknesses. First, Pascal does not actually offer any arguments in favor of God’s existence. Instead he begins by simply assuming that Hell is a likely penalty for non-belief. Pascal never offers proof that this outcome is likely, but accepts it a priori. One could just as easily make up another scenario that is just as likely (“unless one believes that stars are fireflies trapped in a giant black net, one will be transformed into a firefly upon his death”), and then apply Pascal’s wager to that new scenario (“to avoid this outcome we all better wager that the stars are fireflies”). This objection becomes clearer when we apply it to a competing religion such as Islam: Pascal’s logic demands that we also wager that the Koran is the revealed word of God, since that scenario is just as likely (or just as far-fetched) as the Christian myth of Christ’s divinity. So which religion do we wager on? Must we choose Christianity simply because Pascal did? He offers no logical reason for why we should wager on one religion over another. Second, Pascal’s wager plays on one’s fear and self-interest as motivators (choose faith to avoid Hell), which taints the moral argument. How will faith make us more selfless if we choose faith for selfish reasons; or honest/sincere if we pretend to believe when we don’t really; or humble if we think that simply by making the correct wager we become worthy of eternal salvation; or steadfast if, cringing, we embrace faith only out of fear of pain? Pascal’s argument doesn’t create a path away from selfishness, but instead embraces selfishness as the ultimate faith-maker. Pascal’s moral argument disintegrates further when we acknowledge that Christians are in fact ruled by the passions. They might express their passions in uniquely Christian ways (perhaps via ecstatic communication with God, or hatred toward sinners, or religious wars and pogroms, or glorious imaginings of the endless pleasures in store for us once we finally reach Heaven), but the passions still run the show. Pascal argues that passion is the “stumbling-block” that keeps agnostics out of Heaven, but Christianity has no problem with passion, as long as the passion exhibited aligns with church dogma; the true stumbling-block – the thing that prevents agnostics from embracing faith – is reason.
While Pascal thinks that reason (which to him means a clear-eyed approach to his wager) will lead one to faith, reason is actually a one-way ticket away from faith. Asking tough questions – for example, why a perfectly-good God would allow evil to flourish in the world, or why God never reveals Himself, or why good people must go to Hell, or why stories in the Bible (such as the creation myth) do not stack up against more recent scientific evidence – only damages faith. When we ask these questions of religion, the end result is not typically an enhanced level of faith. The best way to enhance one’s faith is to avoid asking these questions to begin with, i.e. to allow one’s power of reason to wither so that faith can replace it.
As the philosopher Louise Antony pointed out1, religion itself is only too aware of the dangers posed by reason. In Catholic school Antony was taught as a young girl that “the questions had been put into my head by the devil, and that, indeed, the whole world had been mined with dangerous ideas, ideas that could threaten my faith if I indulged them” (Antony, 142). What a convenient way to do away with difficult questions, as well as any scientific theory that contradicts scripture (such as the theory of natural selection): simply claim that the devil planted these questions/theories to trick us so we wind up in Hell. Many religious myths center around the lesson that humans should face severe punishment for seeking knowledge. Antony recounts that in these myths, “Prometheus is sentenced to eternal torment, Pandora releases pain and sadness into the world, and Adam and Eve, with all their descendants, must toil and suffer” (Antony, 151). Whenever humans attempt to use reason to understand the mysteries of the universe, God punishes them for their insolence. Knowledge and reason belong only to God; when man first attempted to possess these things, that was Original Sin. All this mythologizing makes sense: religion does not want us to use our reason because reason destroys faith. These myths are no more than cheap tactics and expedients that attempt to deprive man of his faculties so he remains completely in the dark and at the mercy of church dogma, fearing so much for his own salvation that he is willing to accept Pascal’s fear-based wager: spend your life pretending to believe something your reason tells you isn’t true, in order to avoid an outcome your reason tells you won’t come to pass.
What is ironic about all this is that Pascal attempts to use reason to convince us that we should abandon reason, that reason is the enemy. He states his argument in such a way as to appeal to a reasoning and self-interested mind. But the end result of all his arguing is that we, atheists and agnostics, must abandon our beloved reason in order to save our immortal souls. He offers a reasoned argument that demands we reject reason. He wants to put reason on a kamikaze mission, hoping that by implementing reason he can destroy reason.
Our reason, our senses, our instincts, our scientific observations, and our knowledge of the inherent contradictions baked into the Christian story of an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent God shout at us that there is something wrong, something obviously untrue, about Christian doctrine. The dogma appears to us as a whole series of lies and contradictions wrapped up and presented to us as a black or white choice: choose the lies and save your soul, or choose reason and perish. But since Pascal attempts to use reason itself to convince us to go along with his wager, in essence he asks us to use reason just one final time: following Pascal’s line of reasoning should be the last time in our lives that we use reason. He threads a needle, hoping that our reason can simultaneously produce faith and convince us never to use our reason again; going forward our quest for truth must be guided solely by faith. Reason, if applied more broadly than Pascal intends, corrupts faith; reason shines so brightly that it can reveal all the cracks and flaws in religious dogma. Therefore once we have made the wager, we must never think too hard about it (or about science or religion) again. Once reason delivers us to faith, its purpose is served; we must leave reason at the dock, cast off the lines, and sail away with faith toward eternity and immortal life, never to return. Or perhaps more aptly: we should be like Lot abandoning Sodom (reason); if we look back even once, we (and our faith) will die.
Pascal knows reason isn’t nothing. That’s why he uses it as his primary tool in his attempt to argue we should abandon it forever. Pascal tells us that any reasonable person should wager in favor of faith, but in reality Pascal doesn’t actually wish for us to use the full power of our reason, because that would cause us to question and ultimately reject church dogma. If we wish to truly respect reason, then our duty is to fully embrace our power of reason, regardless of the consequences to our faith. That being said, though Pascal discounts the importance of (and perhaps misunderstands the point of) reason, he surely understands the mind of Man. Fear and self-interest are great motivators in this big, scary world; Pascal gets this, and so crafts a wager that appears rational on the surface but really just plays on our deepest fears. Wouldn’t most people choose the expedient answer (the answer that pacifies our fears and doesn’t demand that we think too hard), rather than the answer that requires us to embark on the arduous journey to the summit of reason (which might alienate us from our community, and lead us to the conclusions that there is no loving God watching over us, no purpose to the universe, no salvation awaiting us)? Yes, Pascal might employ sketchy reasoning, but he certainly understands what makes people tick.
Notes
- The following quotations are from “For the Love of Reason” by Louise M. Antony, from Philosophers without God: Meditations on Atheism and the Secular Life, edited by Louise Antony (Oxford University Press, 2010), which was reprinted in John Perry, Michael Bratman, and John Martin Fischer, eds., Introduction to Philosophy : Classical and Contemporary Readings, Seventh Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
Second reading of Plato’s Apology: the folly of trying to prove that nobody knows anything
In The Apology, Socrates comes off as a nearly mythical figure. He is the heroic truth-seeker who dedicates his life to exposing ignorance, corruption, and self-righteous hypocrisy; the prophet chosen by a god to enlighten and provoke the people of his city; the philosopher who asks hard questions and refuses to accept easy answers; the martyr who is willing to die for the cause. This is an inspirational story, but it misses something about Socrates’ approach to philosophy that helps to explain one of his main limitations: his personal commitment to unmask and embarrass anyone who claimed to possess wisdom. This practice, which he repeated often throughout his long career, was not only detrimental to his standing in the city, but also largely unproductive as a philosophic endeavor because it failed to bring Socrates much closer to discovering the wisdom he claimed to seek. It also helps explain why the people of Athens grew so exasperated with him.
In his own retelling, he set out at a young age on a lifelong quest to seek out any man who “was thought to be wise by many other people, and especially by himself,” so that Socrates might publicly interrogate him, and in so doing prove to the man and the surrounding crowd that the man “thought himself wise without being so”1. In order to demonstrate to the crowd that the man was less wise than he believed, Socrates would often sow confusion in the conversation, purposelessly attempting to confound the person he was questioning.2 Though Socrates did often achieve his goal of demonstrating that the man was more ignorant than he let on, the unfortunate side effect was that Socrates (to his “dismay and alarm”) made enemies everywhere he went. His uncouth behavior earned him “much hostility of a very vexing and trying sort.”
So the cost was high in this quest for philosophic truth. The problem was that though he claimed to seek truth itself, in practice his agenda was to humiliate “those who think themselves wise but are not.” His goal was not to answer hard questions, but simply to prove that anyone who claimed to know an answer was a fool.3 This reveals a certain arrogance about Socrates: as he fought tirelessly to prove that politicians, lawyers, poets, and even common laborers were, in a certain sense, frauds because they failed to acknowledge their ignorance on certain philosophical matters, Socrates meanwhile strengthened his own deeply-held belief that only he possessed true moral courage: the courage to admit that he knew nothing. In this way he could think very highly of himself and his powers as a philosopher without ever having to take up the much more challenging task of seeking actual answers to the tough questions. Afterall, if one asserts forcefully that he knows nothing (as Socrates did), it gets one off the hook from having to provide answers; instead one can spend all his time trying to prove that everyone else also knows nothing. In a sense it’s as if he set out to prove that true knowledge is impossible, that the best a human can hope for is an honest confession of his own ignorance, and that any who believes he or she has cultivated something of value deserves public scorn.
This is a low standard when it comes to philosophic knowledge, and as a civic philosophy it certainly does not make for a thriving city. A city depends on large groups of citizens cultivating and putting to good use diverse sets of skills and know-how; the city values those skills and considers them worthwhile and necessary. But Socrates believed such knowledge was a mirage, such success was hollow; the only life worth living was a life spent engaged in philosophical inquiry. He openly looked down on the beliefs, priorities, moral courage, and accomplishments of his peers, even going to far as to suggest that their unique successes were not even “real.” For example, when speaking about a champion at the Olympics, he asserted that “that victor brings you only the appearance of success, whereas I bring you the reality.” It is simply untrue that one who has trained his whole life and reached the pinnacle of his profession does not represent “real” success. There are many kinds of success, and one is not objectively more real than another – a philosopher should acknowledge that.
How is it helpful, or wise, to denigrate all professions except one’s own, to declare that everyone who has honed a craft or gained hard-earned knowledge has wasted his time and effort, that his success is all an illusion, that the only way to demonstrate “real” success is to live life exactly as Socrates lived it? Socrates failed to understand the inherent value of pluralism when it came to skills, knowledge, and perspectives, allowing himself to develop a myopic opinion of what “real” success looks like. The various and interweaving skills of the population are what made Athens what it was. No doubt most members of the jury had spent their own lives cultivating their own diverse sets of skills, skills that those jury members likely valued quite highly. In this light, Socrates’ courageous truth-telling probably came off as pretty insulting to the average Athenian who worked hard and cared about his career, family, and hobbies. (Likewise Plato failed to appreciate the importance of pluralism in his political philosophy, but that’s a topic for another essay).
We need to be able to live in the world. The world is not all just a mirage that can be destroyed simply by declaring that nothing is real; nor is it truthful to blithely declare that philosophic knowledge is the only knowledge that truly matters. If one wishes to be a philosopher, he or she should seek answers rather than merely critique anyone who values something in life besides philosophy. It is no surprise – due to his belief that his own esoteric quest was the only way of life that could possess any objective value – that Socrates neglected his own family and their needs. As he put it, “That I am, in fact, just the sort of of gift that God would send to our city, you may recognize from this: it would not seem to be in human nature for me to have neglected all my own affairs, and put up with the neglect of my family for all these years, but constantly minded your interests, by visiting each of you in private like a father or an older brother, urging you to be concerned about goodness.” It is likely that he considered the role of father far less important (less worthy, less “real”) than the role of god-appointed unmasker of ignorance; indeed he was actually trying to teach others how to be “concerned about goodness” by neglecting his own family. For Socrates it was both worthwhile and good to be a wandering philosopher, just as it would have been less good to be a committed father and husband. This is a statement not about objective value, but about what Socrates the man valued.
A true philosopher must be able to comprehend that many other things besides philosophy objectively matter just as much as philosophy, including a lawyer’s knowledge of the law, a poet’s skill with language, a mother’s ability to calm her child, and (a skill Socrates would probably mock, but one he seemed not to possess) the social skills necessary to live in a city without constantly making enemies. Socrates certainly possessed philosophic wisdom, but lacked a certain social wisdom. Is one objectively more important (more “good”) than the other, if we have to live in the world? Can one search for truth without constantly embarrassing one’s peers in the process? Can a philosopher work to uncover deeper truths while accepting that other humans value other endeavors just as highly as the philosopher values his own quest, and that those other endeavors might actually be just as “good” as his own? Or must the philosopher become so bogged down by his own self-importance that he makes it his mission to make enemies out of the whole world? If one truly seeks wisdom, valuing pluralism and diversity of opinion in this complex world is a great place to start.
Notes
- I use the translation of Plato’s Apology by David Gallop, appearing in John Perry, Michael Bratman, and John Martin Fischer, eds., Introduction to Philosophy : Classical and Contemporary Readings, Seventh Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). All quotations above are from Apology.
- Socrates himself never wrote down his own ideas nor kept records of his conversations. Therefore our only real record of the Socrates’ achievements are the dialogues of Plato, wherein the character “Socrates” often attempts to prove that a so-called wise person is actually quite ignorant. In dialogues such as Charmenides, Laches, and Euthyphro (just to name a few), the conversation ends in confusion, the only conclusion reached that nobody seems to know anything. These early dialogues might be a more accurate representation of the Socrates’ actual conversational method, since they were written when Plato was younger and still under the sway of his teacher. But ultimately we don’t really know how much of the character “Socrates” is a realistic portrayal of the actual man, and how much is Plato’s creative imagination.
- This is certainly not true of every Socratic dialogue. In Republic and Phaedo, Socrates offers extended positive arguments about the formation of an ideal society, the nature of reality, the afterlife, etc. It is possible though that by the time Plato was writing these dialogues, he was no longer interested in portraying Socrates as he truly was, but instead began using “Socrates” as a mouthpiece for Plato’s own theories. If we take Apology to be a fairly accurate picture of how the real Socrates described his mission in life, then I think it’s fair to say that one of his main goals was to prove that anyone who claimed to know an answer was a fool.
Why democracy may not be compatible with revolutionary socialism
“Democracy for the vast majority of the people, and suppression by force, i.e., exclusion from democracy, of the exploiters and oppressors of the people–this is the change democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism. Only in communist society, when the resistance of the capitalists have disappeared, when there are no classes (i.e., when there is no distinction between the members of society as regards their relation to the social means of production), only then ‘the state… ceases to exist’, and ‘it becomes possible to speak of freedom’. Only then will a truly complete democracy become possible and be realized, a democracy without any exceptions whatever.”
Vladimir Lenin, The State and Revolution, Ch. 5 part 2
The quote above does not sit right with me. I’ve been developing a hunch, or perhaps it’s better to call it a question: can democracy ever realistically thrive under a communist regime? Lenin, quoted above, promises that communism and democracy will support and reenforce one another, that both will thrive together. He argues that by limiting democracy (disenfranchising the “oppressors”) we can eventually create a fuller democracy than any the world has yet seen. But I remain skeptical that a fuller democracy can ever realistically blossom within a communist society, despite Lenin’s promises. Lately I’ve been reading Lenin (State and Revolution and What is to be Done), Trotsky (History of the Russian Revolution), Richard Pipes (The Russian Revolution), Kolakowski (Main Currents of Marxism), Karl Popper (The Open Society and its Enemies), and some Plato too. These writers have greatly influenced my thoughts on this subject. Here’s the way I see it at this moment:
Lenin (and Marx to a certain extent) promise that the coming era of communism will usher in a much more complete democracy than what is possible under capitalism. Yet in order to reach that goal, Lenin openly argues that democracy (for the exploiters and oppressors, and their allies) will need to be curtailed. This appears to be a strange and contradictory argument: we can only expand democracy by limiting it. Personally I get stuck on this point, even if I agree with much of Marx’s critique of capitalism. Lenin’s reasoning sounds so much like some Orwellian parody of totalitarian logic (we can only have freedom if we all become slaves, we can only eliminate the state if we usher in a dictatorship), that my mind struggles to accept its validity. Something here isn’t right.
How can we expect democracy to expand if the first step toward expanding it is the disenfranchisement of “the exploiters”? Afterall, who are these “exploiters?” Such a vague and malleable term, easily abused and manipulated in the hands of a revolutionary tribunal. We must go even further than asking how we will define exploiter, and ask who will decide the definition? This is not a semantic question; the answer to my question will determine who loses their right to participate in this so-called expanded democracy. It’s easy to picture the exploiters as some small cohort of Wall St. fat cats and billionaires, the top echelon of the 1%. To Lenin, these are obviously the “bad guys,” those most responsible for income inequality and exploitation, the first on Lenin’s list of citizens to be purged from the voter rolls (perhaps purged from life itself). But I think any revolutionary party would find that many, many more people than just the top 1% will need to be disenfranchised before the revolution can proceed.
So who is to be robbed of political power? I think the answer would turn out to be: whoever stands in the way of the revolutionary party’s agenda. Realistically, it wouldn’t only be the top tier capitalists who stand in the way of revolution, but also the millions of citizens who align philosophically and ideologically with conservatism, i.e. anyone who believes we should not overthrow capitalism, any one who values the concept of private property. Lenin’s program is so extreme, many left-leaning liberals (who might, in different circumstances, support a progressive government) would flock to conservatism’s banners if private property itself (the concept) was threatened. If democracy were allowed, Lenin’s agenda would face serious, united opposition. To complicate things further, a significant portion of these dissenters would likely be workers.
How can a revolutionary party tolerate these dissenters, if the primary goal is to instigate revolution? I believe the revolutionaries would feel the need to persecute these conservatives regardless of their class status, meaning that working class conservatives (many of whom would certainly resist a communist revolution) would need to be disenfranchised, despite their proletarian status. Whether or not these people are correct for opposing revolution is beyond the scope of this essay. All I mean to say here is that not only the “fat cats” will be disenfranchised, but also many lower-class proletarians as well. This truth uncovers a flaw in Lenin’s materialist logic: economic forces cannot be the sole driver of human action if so many proletarians oppose communist policies. In the real world, it forced Lenin to admit (through his actions) that this corollary is true: Lenin and his Bolshevik Party did not actually fight for benefit of the working class; instead they fought only for the benefit of those who ideologically agreed with Lenin’s philosophy and Bolshevik policies. Essentially Lenin was offered a choice that amounts to the ultimate test of his philosophical integrity: a) allow all proletarians to vote on government policy, thereby sacrificing his communist dream at the altar of proletarian democracy, or b) hold onto power all costs, which entails labelling all dissenting proletarians as class traitors and terrorizing/purging them via a network of informants, secret police, and concentration camps. Of course he chose B, and set the stage for Stalin’s later perfection of the method.
What else could Lenin mean by “exploiters and oppressors” besides those who oppose the revolution? If a large bloc of proletarian conservatives stood in the way of revolution, Lenin would either be forced to purge them from the revolutionary party, or accept that when these citizens vote they will vote against communism, which will likely doom the whole revolutionary effort. Lenin imagined in his pre-revolution writings that it would be easy to identify who deserves to be purged (basically all non-proletarians). In other words, he had a failure of imagination when picturing in his mind his beloved proletariat (or perhaps he idealized them). Either way, he failed to notice that many, many proletarians opposed the Bolsheviks. Thus upon his assumption of power in Russia, he was faced with an unexpected backlash from his own constituency.
And so, predictably, he purged dissident workers right alongside dissenters from other classes. This embarrassingly reveals that class is actually not the most important defining category for Lenin; what he actually cares about even more than class is orthodox agreement with his own political views. Any who can’t meet that standard must be disenfranchised – regardless of class – otherwise the revolution will fail. So the revolution cannot proceed without massive disenfranchisement across all the classes, a disenfranchisement based solely on political beliefs, not on class status.
Thus the quote at the top of this article is proven false. Under Lenin’s revolutionary program, classes do not disappear. The new ruling elite are not proletarians as Lenin promised, but Party Men. One’s class status is determined by one’s obedience to the government and affiliation with the party that rules it. The quote above is also false in its assertion that a truly complete democracy can be realized under (Lenin’s) communism. Lenin’s program can only be implemented if all who disagree with it are labelled as “oppressors” and disenfranchised. How could the disenfranchisement of all citizens who hold ideas contrary to those of the ruling revolutionary party really be the first logical step toward expanding democracy? And how can Lenin claim to rank proletarian status as the ultimate defining feature of his ideal citizen if he does not have a plan for how to deal with proletarians who disagree with him?
If we assume, as Lenin did, that all proletarians will unanimously agree with Leninism, then the question of whether or not to purge proletarians who disagree with Leninism becomes a non-issue. But by doing so, we imagine a world that does not exist today and, given the realities of life in a pluralistic world, is unlikely ever to occur. Though that doesn’t stop utopian thinkers like Lenin from imagining that the proletariat is capable, as if they were one singular body, of absolute unity of thought and purpose, of hive-mind behavior. Perhaps if economic and social circumstances in the USA degraded to such a horrendous extent (as they had in Russia during WWI and after the February Revolution) that a majority of Americans were going on strike, marching in the streets, and demanding urgent and dramatic changes, then Leninist parties might be able to claim large-scale buy-in by the workers. But even then, there would still be workers who believe that parliamentary democracy is the most feasible solution to the country’s problems, and many others who rally to right-wing banners, and many others that would consider themselves progressive while refusing to reject the concept of private property (these types also reject the Bolshevik’s violent methods in favor of constitutional, legislative reforms). This was all true of the Russian proletariat in 1917. In other words, the only way to assume that Lenin wouldn’t need to fight against, disenfranchise, silence, and persecute members of the working class is to assume that all members of this enormous and diverse class are capable of rejecting all but one economic-political theory, of fighting for one singular economic goal (at the expense of all other goals). Humanity doesn’t work like that, not ever.
Pluralism in political thought must be acknowledged by any political theory who wishes to do more than construct utopias in his mind. There are countless reasons why many proletarians, despite sharing with the Bolsheviks a sincere desire to improve the lives of the poor, would reject Leninism entirely. Many proletarians are religious people who might fear losing their freedom to worship, while many others are parents who may oppose revolution simply for the sake of maintaining a peaceful world for their children, while others are patriots who would remain loyal to their countries and therefore oppose an international communist revolution, and others still are modern constitution-loving liberals who consider incremental change to be the ideal way to reform capitalism. Turns out there are many reasons why a proletarian might oppose revolution, and many reasons why their class status might not be the most important motivator behind their ethical and political decisions.
Lenin assumes in a cavalier fashion that the dissenters will be a tiny minority, and all of them complicit in the evil doings of capitalism (i.e. they’re bad guys, and there aren’t a lot of them, so we don’t need to feel bad purging them. In fact, once we purge them, we can finally have the communist society that we, the good guys, all secretly long for). And so when Lenin claims that class status is the most important defining factor in a human’s life, the factor that determines one’s inner-most desires, the factor that determines whether one gets a voice in the new society, he is constructing an “ideal” version of the proletariat, a perfect version. When Lenin discovered that this ideal proletariat did not really exist, he determined that must never allow democracy to fall into the hands of the workers.
So either:
- Proletarian status matters more than anything else, in which case the revolutionaries would need to allow proletarian dissenters (conservatives and liberals) to vote, and Lenin’s vision of revolution will likely fail, since class status does not directly determine one’s political beliefs, and the whole body of workers hold so many conflicting opinion about economics, revolution, democracy, politics, religion, etc.;
- Or orthodox adherence to the revolutionary party’s goals matter most, which will mean Lenin will be forced to disenfranchise many proletarians, which will reveal the lie behind Lenin’s claim that under communism democracy will be in the hands of proletarians – in fact it will actually be in the hands only of those who agree with Lenin.
Neither scenario gives us a situation where a communist revolution ushers in fuller democracy, or for that matter a democracy in the hands of the proletariat.
I don’t think Lenin would be ready to admit that he ranks “orthodox acceptance of his ideals” higher in importance than class status. He avoids facing this question by instead simply believing that all proletarians are capable of relentlessly pursuing the same political and economic goals; any who oppose these goals must necessarily be in a different class (the oppressive classes), or are perhaps just brainwashed puppets of the oppressive classes (and so must be purged for the common good). True proletarians are incapable of supporting capitalism, representative democracy, or incremental reform on their merits alone. So any proletarians who do support these things must not be true proletarians. In this way Lenin can claim to rank class status first in importance: he defines one’s class not according to one’s material conditions but according to whether that person agrees with Lenin’s views. One simply cannot be a proletarian unless one agrees with Lenin.
I don’t believe all of this was conscious for Lenin; he really does seem to believe that “true proletarians” will all support his personal political goals. Like a Platonic idealist, Lenin appears to believe in a sort of divine category called “proletarian.” All who fall into this category share the same goals, beliefs, desires, and dreams. If given the opportunity, they will prioritize the needs of their class above all other priorities, including religious, familial, national, and of course political. All we need to do is cleanse society of the poisonous residue of capitalism, and the true proletarians can finally come together and achieve their full communist potential. Therefore, according to this idealist-Marxist logic, the proletarians will never fight amongst themselves or disenfranchise one another because they will all agree on the efficacy of disenfranchising the oppressors (and it will be obvious who those people are). The elimination of inequality, exploitation, and profit-motive is the dream of every hard-working proletarian. In fact, Lenin extends this “theory of forms” to all the classes: not just proletarians but also capitalists and middle class people all think a certain way. They are predictable in their ideologies and desires, likely to act a certain way according to their class status. Therefore a figure like Lenin, who can see into everyone’s minds and hearts with the clarity of a god (much like Plato’s philosopher kings who alone understand the nature of the divine Forms), can steer large populations of people according to his almost divine will, and shape society along those hard and unbreakable class divisions.
Or so Lenin might have imagined it.
And then beyond that, I struggle with the question of how, assuming a communist society is able to survive this dictatorial phase of the revolution, democracy can be maintained under communism. Remember, Lenin openly admits that democracy will be curtailed to a certain extent during the revolution, but the second part of his prophesy is that after the revolution, once communism is established, democracy will expand to an even greater level than was possible before the revolution (this promise is made throughout State and Revolution). So Lenin’s promise for post-revolutionary democracy is even grander than his promise about the revolutionary proletariat persecuting the exploiters: he promises that communism will allow us to build “a democracy without any exceptions whatever.” But my intuition tells me that Lenin’s party-driven communism can only thrive if democracy is limited for good, and that the promise of an expanded democracy under communism is a misguided promise that can never be fulfilled.
Democracy cannot expand under communism because that would allow those opposed to communism to dismantle it, simply by exercising their right to vote (or voting representatives into office who will oppose communism). And even after the revolution, when capitalism has been dismantled and relegated to the dustbin of history (assuming it is even possible to do so), there will still always be citizens who wish to try new things, innovate, and challenge the ruling cultural and governmental paradigm. This will be true even if (especially if) communism is in place. Voters who wish to experiment with capitalism, question whether communism is the best method for running an economy, or desire the freedom to practice profit-seeking activities, might vote for policies that undermine communism. And since communism can only be maintained if capitalism is absolutely disallowed from seeping into the system, this sort of “chipping away” would destroy the entire communist effort. Only by purging from the voter rolls those who dissent can communism be maintained (or by disallowing voting altogether, as so many actual communist regimes have done). This of course can be done, but it certainly will not lead to an expansion of democracy. In fact, if this democracy can only allow those who agree with the communist party to vote, this really isn’t a democracy at all; it’s single party rule.
Entropy is the enemy of communism. Communism can only be maintained if the society is united in favor of it, or if those who oppose it are disenfranchised and prevented from practicing capitalism. Every time a free market is allowed to blossom under the communist regime, it weakens communism. But experimentation and profit seeking seem to be natural human behaviors. In any society there will be those who wish to challenge authority, experiment with activities that are banned, or simply try new things. Sometimes these behaviors are driven by profit-motive, but other times those who undertake these risks do so despite the fact that even if they succeed there will be little personal gain (picture Galileo experimenting with physics under the watchful gaze of the authoritarian Catholic church). No matter what social, cultural, or economic system is installed, there will always be humans ready to challenge it. Therefore communists will constantly need to fight entropy to maintain the communist vacuum (i.e. they will constantly need to prevent anyone with ideas that oppose or undermine communism from practicing or voicing those ideas, or voting at all in the “expanded” democracy). Only by eliminating dissenters can communism be maintained, as dissent only introduces cracks and flaws into the system. But if it can only be maintained by purging dissenters and maintaining single party rule, that means democracy is opposed to communism.
The communist tribunal in charge of determining who will be disenfranchised will have some tough questions to wrestle with: shall we allow free-thinkers to speak and act as they please, even if their ideas might undermine communism? Should we allow their ideas into the public forum, where others might debate the ideas or even build upon them? Or do we need to follow Plato (in The Republic) and ban dangerous ideas in order to maintain the purity of the people (to keep people in their ideal categories)? Do we need to disenfranchise or purge any who seem naturally inclined toward profit seeking? Or do we allow any and all to vote, even if the citizenry votes for economic liberalism? How can communism be preserved if regular citizens are allowed to question it, to convince others that it is worthwhile, to allow more income-inequality into society for the sake of upward mobility and innovation, and to accrue wealth and speak publicly about the merits of the profit motive? Either democracy or communism will need to give way.
Perhaps, one could argue, experimentation of this sort is not part of human nature and that it can be expunged if we change the cultural and material forces, if we engineer an ideal society. Perhaps under communism the people will be so content and well-fed, so fulfilled and self-actualized, so full of species-essence, that there will be no need to experiment with the profit motive ever again. All members of society can live their lives in peace, blissfully content with the eternal and unchanging status quo (and so communism would make conservatives of us all). Again, this is just Platonic thought lurking behind the facade of Marxism: the citizens of the ideal polis will all be perfectly content in their categories for all time; the polis will provide all citizens with everything they need to thrive and to fulfill their respective roles in the collective. Who in his right mind would fight or even dissent against the ideal polis (except perhaps one of those nasty exploiters we discussed earlier, but they’re all gone now). Ah Plato, that great enemy of democracy, shows up in the strangest places. Lenin promises democracy, but secretly, quietly, he whispers: why do we even need democracy, since under communism everyone will agree? And so communism will be Lenin’s ideal polis, where justice will be defined as a man fulfilling his role in society without complaint, and where innovation will become unnecessary because perfection has already been achieved. We can even do away with voting because unanimous consent among the entire citizenry will reign. Once communism is established we can arrest all change. There will be no dissent, so there will be no need of democracy or the state. We will all live like brothers and sisters, just as Plato’s guardians would live, if they truly all believed they were gold-souled.
So during the revolution we will need to limit democracy in order to dethrone the bad guys. Then after the revolution, democracy will only be granted to those who agree with the ruling party. Lenin believes this will be just about everyone who is left. Because he believes this, he prophesies that democracy and the state itself will wither away since there will be no need of them (who needs a state, or voting, or politics for that matter, if we all live in eternal peace, agreement, and brotherhood). It’s obvious by now that I consider this prophesy to be an overly optimistic statement of faith. All dissenters will lose their rights to vote (or their lives), and only through severe limitation of the electorate can Lenin be proven true: all voting citizens will agree that communism is the best and most glorious goal for society to pursue because in the end only party members are allowed to vote (and even party members can be easily purged if they disagree with the head man). Or to put it another way: kill everyone who disagrees with us, and we can finally live in a world where everyone agrees on everything (or pretends to agree, out of fear of the purge).
I don’t claim to know the hearts and minds of other men and women. All I can really know is my own mind, and even that can be slippery. So I’m not trying to build some grand theory about human nature. This essay is about the insolubility of democracy in a communist society. I do not consider this question solved for me, nor is my mind made up. In fact I am eager to be convinced otherwise! I ask: can we establish a society with more social and economic equality AND expanded democracy? More work to be done on this front. I’ll note that I do not wish to assassinate Marxism at this time, but only Lenin’s claims about democracy. I hold Marx’s critique of capitalism in the highest regard; he cuts right to the core of what is wrong with capitalism (just as Plato did to democracy). But though Plato, Marx, and Lenin were all expert critics, their proposed solutions were extreme and far-fetched, so I challenge them. Despite their genius and the raw power of their analyses, I challenge them. I reject the parts of their philosophies that endanger democracy, even if I fear where capitalism is taking us. If anything I want to distill the best and most useful parts of Marxism (not so much Platonism), and discover ways to apply those Marxist ideas today, to contribute toward solutions to the pressing problems of our time. But I fear the uncertainty, danger, and authoritarianism of open revolution, and I do not wish to throw democracy in the trash can in the name of overly optimistic experimentation. I worry that Marxism creates too slippery a slope toward authoritarianism.
I should note that I am writing this in the USA, where we currently have a representative democracy. Flawed as it is, it is still a democratic state, which sets a high bar for any revolutionary party hoping to overthrow the current system. Whatever new system they establish would need to include more and better democracy than what we have now, otherwise it will be tough to recruit enough Americans (liberty-minded and democracy-loving as they are) to join the revolution. If I was instead writing from a country with little or no legitimate democracy, or a country still mired in feudalism or facing widespread famine and deprivation or crushed under an imperialist regime, then perhaps the Leninist proposal would carry more wide-spread appeal. Afterall, any democracy would be better than none, and at least the Leninists promise some democracy. But if Marxists can’t find a revolutionary model that appeals to Americans (which will likely mean maintaining high levels of liberty and democracy), then they guarantee that the American people will fight valiantly against the revolution. So either democracy, economics, politics, and culture have to degrade considerably in the USA, or Leninists need to come up with a plan that actually appeals to citizens in a modern democracy, otherwise Leninism is a dead-end in America (and the entire western world I’d wager). Or perhaps Lenin would argue that all citizens of modern-day America are “oppressors” who deserve to be purged by the world-wide proletariat. He might get some support for that one.
Addendum: Review of Karl Kautsky’s Dictatorship of the Proletariat:
Kautsky buys into the Leninist idea that socialist transformation is inevitable. But unlike Lenin he emphasizes (in a somewhat convoluted fashion) that socialism cannot exist without democracy. Lenin was eager to abandon democracy the very moment his party seized power, and this is really the basis of Kautsky’s scathing critique of Lenin’s tactics.
In his own way, Kautsky supports bourgeoisie democracy because it lays the groundwork for (what he perceives to be) the inevitable proletarian revolution, and allows the workers to voice their grievances and form workers parties (capitalism generally comes with liberty and freedom of speech). He believes that if capitalism continues to grow, the disenfranchised proletariat must grow with it, and so capitalism will inevitably create communism, as Marx argued. The working poor will grossly outnumber the wealthy, and so they will eventually vote their way into power. Kautsky assumes that the workers in a democracy, once given the power, will unanimously demand socialism. And so he’s not so different from Lenin, in that he believes that class interest motivates all decisions (also known as vulgar materialism). Like Lenin he has an idealistic image of a united working class all sharing the same demands and motivations, without disagreements or deviations within the ranks. This is not how real politics works, which makes the idealism of Kautsky and Lenin appear particularly quaint (and in Lenin’s case, dangerously naive). Though Lenin and Kautsky subscribe to the same brand of idealism, they disagree on the timeframe: Kautsky prefers the slow and even development of socialism over time; Lenin demands a violent and immediate revolution (any who refuse to come along with his plan must be purged).
So Kautsky and Lenin both share the same end goal, only that Lenin was too hasty to get there. What is really at the heart of this disagreement over the timeframe of the revolution is a more critical disagreement about democracy. Democracy is a crucial feature in Kautsky’s imagined revolution, and in his imagined communist society that follows that revolution. To take it even further, Kautsky believes that socialism cannot exist without democracy. Without democracy the whole plan will decay into dictatorship. In this regard he was proven right by Lenin. The Bolsheviks’ first move was the dismantling of democracy, including democracy among the workers (many of whom dissented or belonged to different parties from the Bolsheviks). By the time the Bolshevik transition to power was complete, real socialism (read: equality between all classes) was dead in Russia: Lenin’s party (read: the new ruling class) controlled all facets of government, culture, and society, while the teeming masses were disenfranchised, impoverished, and completely unable to openly voice grievances. The Bolsheviks’ so-called “dictatorship of the proletariat” was just a dictatorship, not socialism.
So Kautsky is right in the sense that socialism without democracy decays rapidly into dictatorship or single party rule. However Katusky isn’t particularly clear about how democracy will inevitably lead to socialism. While Lenin squashed democracy in order to preserve his party’s power, Kautsky sees democracy as the pathway to real socialism. But this will only happen if the vast majority demand socialism, and agree on what “socialism” should mean. Lenin rightly understood that this isn’t really feasible. The democratic electorate simply cannot come together on such a large and ambiguous goal, if all citizens are allowed to vote and speak freely. And so Lenin and his small cohort of true believers staged a sudden coup rather than allowing the masses to vote him into (which he knew they would never do), and then once in charge he destroyed all vestiges of democracy in his rise to absolute power. Was this a cynical attempt to hold onto power, or did he truly believe that by eliminating democracy he would one day create real socialism? Answer: who cares. His method led to totalitarianism, so it was wrong. It was the wrong method both for creating socialism and for governing in general (call me a consequentialist if you like).
Lenin understood, unlike Kautsky, that democracy is more likely to kill socialism than birth it, because factions within workers parties and disagreements between large swaths of the population create deadlock and stalemate and thin margins for change. Generally the most revolutionary outcomes a democracy can hope for are the sort of liberal, incremental, compromise-focused changes that we typically see in parliamentary governments. Kautsky ignores the reality of pluralism: people hold different opinions and see the world through unique lenses, and this is true even within workers parties and unions. This is a natural facet of humanity, and cannot be ignored. It is a fantasy to imagine that something as intricate as a socialist economy could ever be democratically planned and administered, or that the entire population could even be made to agree that socialism is the correct path, or even be made to agree on one single definition of socialism. Democracy is far too messy and inefficient and factional for that. There will always be disagreement and innovation and challenges to the status quo, and economic factors alone will never be the sole driver of human behavior. This is why democracy does work well with capitalism, which is also sloppy and unplanned and competitive. Pluralism is one of the driving forces of capitalism, which (like the gene pool) is strengthened by diversity. Lenin understood all of this well, and so (as a hater of diversity) sought to prevent any who opposed him from exercising any democratic power whatsoever. Lenin couldn’t allow factions or even small disagreements to flourish within the party, so he dictated to the party members (and therefore to the people of Russia) exactly what they needed to believe. The result certainly was not capitalism, but it also certainly was not socialism.
So allowing real democracy is unlikely to lead to socialism, but snuffing out democracy only leads to dictatorship and totalitarianism. Socialism fails when it’s undemocratic, and it fails when it’s democratic. I fear that the message here is that socialism is impossible.
Plato’s Theory of Forms makes for problematic political philosophy
In Book I of The Republic, Plato establishes a habit of isolating people, virtues, activities, and things into very narrow categories. For example if a leader takes good care of his people, he falls into the narrow category of “ruler.” But if he uses his power for personal gain, he is not (in that moment) a “ruler”; instead he falls into the category of “money-maker” or “criminal.” Following this logic, a true ruler, therefore, can never abuse his office for personal advantage, because the moment he does he ceases to be a ruler; a ruler, by definition, can never act unjustly. The very definition of ruler, in Plato’s eyes, is bound up with the act of providing care and comfort to the population, so any rulers who stray from that path are not rulers at all. Likewise a doctor ceases to be a doctor the moment he makes an error, or even the moment he contemplates how much to charge for his services (in that moment he is a money-maker).
The categories represent perfect ideals, so any deviation from the ideal behavior associated with that category immediately shifts the thing described into a different category. The main character of Republic, Socrates, asks his companions whom they would rather hire to construct their homes, a just home-builder or a skilled home-builder, and of course they select skilled. The category of “just man” needs to be in a separate category from “home-builder.” In a way, this is the first introduction (within The Republic) of Plato’s famous Theory of Forms, which plays a crucial role later in the dialogue. Basically there are a series of perfect ideals (called the Forms) that include justice, love, goodness, but also home-building, doctoring, and kingship. These ideals give meaning to the words we use to describe these things in the real world, even if in the real world the things described rarely if ever live up to the ideal. Our eternal soul remembers the Forms from a previous life, which is how we understand perfect concepts like justice; we understand justice even though we live in a world where one might never glance real justice even once in a lifetime. If it wasn’t for the existence of the Forms (and the soul’s memory of the Forms), we wouldn’t even know what justice means.
The problem is that the Forms aren’t real! If I state that a home-builder suddenly transforms into a money-changer the moment he accepts payment, I’m not stating some crucial fact about the real world; I’m actually just practicing word play. Humans invented the concepts of “home-builder” and “justice.” There is no eternal, divine, or perfect category called “home-building,” just as there is no eternal Form of perfect justice. These are both constructs. When we distill these definitions down into their purest forms, we manipulate avatars that stand for concepts we invented. We can change the definitions of words however we see fit! For example, one man might say the ideal king is a ruler who always puts the good of the collective ahead of the good of individuals, while another might believe a king is a man who wields absolute power and tolerates no challenge to his authority, while a third could state that a king is only a king if he successfully builds a massive web of patronage, or some other meaning. Picking just one “perfect” definition of king doesn’t tell us anything useful about real kings in the real world. So how can we base our real understandings of kings on a made-up fantasy version of so-called “ideal” kings? Think of the various ways that could warp human behavior, if the expectation is that all of mankind must conform to a particular man’s version of a make-believe ideal.
It becomes clear right away the danger inherent in constructing a political philosophy built on the premise that our institutions must, if we wish to have a just society, force human action to mirror the made-up Forms as closely as possible. Plato’s ideal society, which he meticulously constructs in Republic, is based on the notion that a truly just society is one where the rulers do everything in their power to attain the ideal, regardless of what the citizenry might desire. The ideal kings will rule as all-powerful philosophers from on high, the ideal soldiers will sacrifice everything for the Fatherland, the ideal workers will toil their lives away in silent acquiescence. Every man, regardless of his class, minds its own business, and focuses solely on his own work, the work that was assigned to him by fate. In a way such a society might be similar to a military theocracy: start with a warped construct that does not resemble the real world (in Plato’s case, the Forms; in Christianity’s case, an omnipotent and perfectly good diety), then construct an entire system of laws that enforces the orthodoxy of the ruling elite. How quickly an ideal society transforms into a dystopia.
Plato would even arm his kings with near totalitarian power in an effort to enforce the ideal upon the masses. This is by design: they will wield their power wisely because they are true “rulers” (ideal rulers who only make decisions that benefit the state). The rulers must not only live according to the Forms, but also strive to understand the Forms. Thus Plato decrees that it will be just and good for his philosopher kings to possess absolute power over culture, procreation, government, and society, because only the kings, as philosophers, understand what is truly good for the state. Likewise the soldiers who protect the city will live the ideal lives of perfect soldiers, and will be better for it. As children the only stories they will be allowed to hear are those which teach bravery at all costs and absolute obedience to the city, the gods, and one’s elders. Any story that portrays death as scary or tragic must be eliminated, so that soldiers will be fearless in combat and ambivalent about death. These soldiers will also be told the lie that they were literally born from the soil of their country, so that they will love their country the way sons love their fathers. Through such programs of indoctrination will the members of the soldiering class attain the ideal Form of “soldier.” As for the workers, they will attain their ideal categories as well. A builder must build and focus on nothing else. He will not even deviate from his career in order to be a father to his children; all children will be communally raised. Nor will the builder stray from his ideal path in order to act as a devoted husband; all wives will be held in common, so personal relationships need not get in the way of developing one’s singular talent. Thus will members of the lowest class achieve the ideal Form of “worker.” And just to make sure the workers don’t revolt, they will be taught from birth that they have “bronze souls” while the rulers have golden ones. So it seems the pathway to the Forms is paved with lies.
Here’s the situation: Plato uses concepts that do not really exist in the real world (such as perfect justice and perfect kingship) and makes them the bases upon which we are supposed to construct our systems of ethics and justice, our institutions, and our understanding of the real world. But at best the Forms are a fun-house mirror version of reality: the images are distorted and wrong, unnatural and grotesque. Real humans are multi-faceted. Human individuals tend to have multiple talents and (sometimes conflicting) ambitions. Humans want to be heard, to innovate, to challenge authority, to improve systems; Plato will have none of that. I wonder: how can Plato look at the multi-talented individuals surrounding him and preach that the ideal man is a creature who rigidly performs one single task throughout his entire life? How can Plato, who had the courage to question and challenge the political system of his own city of Athens (because he thought it was an unjust system), argue that the ideal citizen must remains unquestioningly obedient to his betters, content in his ignorance, proud of his powerlessness? How can Plato look at the beautiful diversity of the real world he lived in and argue that the government should use force, censorship, and deception to enforce closed-mindedness and rigid conformity?
Plato starts with his personal version of “ideal,” and forces the world to conform to it. He calls the ensuing dystopia an ideal polis. Along the way he argues that the definition of justice is when a man minds his own business, focuses on whatever Form corresponds to his life (whether its ruling, or soldiering, or ship-building, or doctoring, or laboring in the mines), and does not deviate from that path. So in the end, a just man (for Plato) means a man who adheres to Plato’s Forms. It goes without saying that if a person considers deceit, disenfranchisement of workers, censorship, and forced indoctrination to be unjust, Plato’s vision of a just world comes off as pretty unjust. One could even argue that the only way one could call it “just” with a straight face is to change the definition of justice to mean the dedication of one’s life to the unwavering pursuit of said Forms. In other words, only by practicing wordplay, by manipulating the definition of words, can we believe that such a society would be good for us. This isn’t so different from any religious fanatic whose definition of justice entails worshipping the deity of his choice; put that fanatic into a position of power, and he will soon call the censorship of art, the suppression of competing worldviews, the execution of political opponents, the indoctrination of the young, and the impoverishment of his people “just,” so long as the citizens worship the deity. Plato practices wordplay when he invents his categories, then he practices more wordplay to convince us these categories are just.
In the real world everything is a blend. Home-builders are just or unjust, and their skill level is not mutually exclusive or dependent on that first variable. Doctors do make errors in the real world, and they do not immediately cease to be doctors in that moment, unless one wishes to create a make-believe ideal for doctoring that no doctor on earth could ever even resemble. Rulers do use their power for personal gain, and they are still rulers when they do so because in the real world rulers do these things. To say that a thief cannot meet the definition of “ruler” is to manipulate the definition of a word, not to comment on how the real world operates. More importantly, when Plato constructs his perfect state, he believes his rulers will come so close to the ideal that he is willing to sacrifice art, poetry, freedom, democracy, individualism, and much more to attain that ideal. But this “ideal” ruler cannot co-exist with human nature, it can never be realized unless humans stop being human and start being divine. Rulers will steal and hoard power and manipulate their office for personal gain because that is something human rulers do. So why on earth would we sacrifice all of those precious things in life in order to attain the unattainable? This is the danger of creating a political program based on Forms: one who believes in such a program might be willing to sacrifice everything that makes life worth living, if it will help the society reach the ideal. Later utopian thinks like Lenin will go on to make the same mistaken argument: it is wise and just to sacrifice everything, including large swaths of the population if need be, in order to realize the ideal society where we can finally all live in peace and brotherhood.
Let’s not build political philosophy from figments of imagination, and certainly don’t be too eager to sacrifice all that is beautiful and free in order to live up to a fairy tale ideal. Instead allow the real world to shape the political program, and remember to cherish the qualities that make life worth living: art, love, freedom, questioning, innovation, diversity, upward mobility. If these factors don’t play a role in the “ideal” society, misery will ensue.
When ‘dialogue’ is a distraction: totalitarianism in Plato’s Republic
I have a bone to pick with Plato.
Ok so Plato’s Republic is pretty much the most influential philosophy book in history. As one might expect from a book with that kind of reputation, it’s an impressive and challenging work whose elegant structure and powerful writing lay open before the reader an absolute buffet of thought-provoking ideas. Before I proceed with any criticism, I must pause to openly acknowledge Plato’s brilliance as a writer and philosopher.
Now that the brilliance has been acknowledged, I’ll be frank: Plato turns out to be utopian-minded totalitarian elitist obsessed with establishing a caste-based society wherein the vast majority of the people are treated like human cattle while a firmly entrenched class of “guardians” rules over them with an iron fist. In order to keep the lower classes docile and unquestioning, the guardians will block them from obtaining an education (only the guardians will be educated), and will institutionalize a set of lies designed to prevent revolt – for example, the lie that workers are predestined to remain powerless and poor because they were born with “bronze souls” that make them incapable of ruling, while the guardians possess “gold souls” that predestine them for positions of power. Plato, when he imagines his perfect society, envisions an ignorant and powerless lower class who, indoctrinated since birth to believe they are inferior, builds and slaves and carries their burden in silence, leaving the “philosopher kings” to rule the city as they please. This dystopian nightmare is Plato’s plan for maintaining political stability…. so that alone is troubling and worthy of discussion. But my particular beef (at this moment anyways) isn’t about Plato’s totalitarian blueprint, but instead that he uses the ‘dialogue’ format as a cover to trick us into thinking his terrible ideas are actually good ones.
When I picture a philosophical dialogue, I imagine a conversation where each participant has something substantial to contribute, where characters challenge each other, and good ideas provide counterpoint to other good ideas (and bad ideas are dismantled), where the conversation morphs and changes and weaves in unexpected directions, and as a result new conclusions and deeper truths are discovered. But in Republic one main character, Socrates (who represents Plato), is free to heroically spin out all of his wacky ideas on government and morality, while his companions obsequiously nod their heads and shout their agreement at every possible opportunity. In other words, Plato tells us this is a dialogue, but doesn’t allow his characters to challenge Socrates at any of the most crucial moments, such as when he tries to convince us that an ideal society would require strict censorship, government-sponsored lying on a massive scale, and the disenfranchisement of the vast majority of people. Sure Socrates’ companions challenge him on other points, but not when it really matters. They banter over other questions, but they don’t scrutinize his political blueprint at the level I would expect from a philosophical discourse. Nor do they forcefully protest when Socrates lays out his conception of justice, which looks something like this: every member of a particular caste does his job without complaint, we all mind our own business, and most importantly we sacrifice our personal desires and needs to those of the totalitarian state.
Why does Plato use the dialogue format if not to challenge these controversial ideas? He uses the dialogue format to make us, the readers, think that his political program has been probed and challenged at every turn, when in fact it skated right by unscathed. Since the characters do offer occasional resistance to Socrates and quibble over other philosophical questions, the reader is misled into thinking that Socrates’ political logic has been tested thoroughly over the course of this conversation. In the end we are supposed to feel as if his logic was so impregnable that no reasonable person could come up with a valid objection. After all, if a reasonable objection to Socrates’ scheme could be found, wouldn’t one of these bright young men in the dialogue find it?
And so Plato (with Socrates as his mouthpiece) constructs his “perfect” society where most people would be no better than slaves, and dresses it up as objective truth discovered via the Socratic method. Even when the other characters are offered ample opportunities to object or challenge this vision, they decline. In Book IV, after Socrates has laid out his whole plan for creating his totalitarian state, he announces that he wishes to pivot the conversation so he can discuss justice in his state. He turns to one of his companions and says, “I mean to begin with the assumption that our State, if rightly ordered, is perfect.” His companion simply replies, “That is most certain.” He doesn’t question the political blueprint at all, but goes along with Socrates in total agreement their new society would indeed be perfect. This is a brief but pivotal moment. Socrates is attempting to move forward in his argument, so that he can build on the foundation he has already established. This is the ideal moment for someone to step in and say, “actually Socrates, before you work out the finer details of your society, I feel obligated to say that your plan so far sounds like it would just result in despotism. I know you claim to hate tyranny (Socrates states this openly in Book VIII), but aren’t you in fact providing philosophical ammo to any group of despots who wants to entrench their own power? Haven’t you not only given them a useful plan that describes exactly how best to lie to the people in order to maximize the power of the ruling class, but haven’t you also provided philosophical justification for this despotic behavior by calling it just? Though your plans are supposed to describe an ideal state, don’t you see that any real humans who attempt to use your framework will end up no better than slave-masters ruling over a broken people?”
Or perhaps, “How can a state be ‘perfect’ if the rulers have to use constant deception to maintain their power? Don’t you, Socrates, believe that it is a moral act to seek and teach the truth, as you yourself have done throughout your career as a philosopher? Yet your society makes it illegal for any member of a lower class to do just that, and illegal for a member of any class to challenge the political order you hope to establish. Isn’t that a contradiction? How can you, a philosopher, embrace a society where real philosophy would become impossible, a society where so-called “philosopher kings” would force their citizens to live in ignorance? What kind of philosophers would these kings really be, if they behaved that way?” This seems to me an obvious objection.
Honestly I’m kind of astounded with Plato. He seems to want us to believe that his beloved teacher Socrates, the mythical lover of truth, would (if he had the power to do so) make it illegal for anyone but the most powerful elite to seek knowledge? It doesn’t even make sense that a man who literally martyred himself for the cause of philosophy would wish to ban philosophy! It’s important to remember why Plato demands that the lower classes remain ignorant: the stability of the whole society depends on it. Since the laborers, artisans, merchants, builders, slaves (and anyone else not born into the guardian class) will be deprived of all political power, the only way to keep them from revolting is with deception and force. Political stability is very important to Plato; after all he grew up during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, during which Plato witnessed the horrors of war, along with all the plagues and political upheaval that come with it. After surviving that series of catastrophes, it makes sense that Plato considers stability to be of chief importance, and we can even understand why he sought to convince us that stability is the most important aim of the perfect state. But to put into the mouth of Socrates the opinion that deception is superior to truth if it maintains stability…. that feels like a low-brow move. It’s as if he is attempting to exploit Socrates’ credibility as a philosopher and truth-seeker in order to lend credibility to a doctrine Socrates (the real Socrates) would have rejected whole-heartedly. Plato claims to want philosophers to rule, but a true philosopher (like the real Socrates) would never be allowed to rule in Plato’s state because of Socrates’ unflinching commitment to truth. What is a philosopher, if not a person who values and hunts for unadulterated truth? Perhaps Bertrand Russell1 was right when he said of Plato’s philosopher kings, “a philosopher is to be, for all time, a man who understands and agrees with Plato.”
Plato’s assumption that stability should be our ultimate political goal is actually itself another claim that goes unchallenged in the dialogue. Plato treats his contempt for diversity as an obvious, universal truth. In Book V Socrates asks, “Can there be any greater evil [within a state] than discord and distraction and plurality where unity ought to reign? or any greater good than the bond of unity?” His companion Glaucon answers without hesitation, “There cannot.” They then proceed to examine whether their proposed state lives up to this timeless standard. However it seems prudent to pause and question whether pluralism is indeed such a great evil. Diversity of thought, difference of opinion, unique ways of seeing the world – these are qualities that can contribute to innovation. As more and more persons contribute their ideas to the hopper, the ideas/philosophies/wisdom/culture/science of the society are elevated and transformed. I do not intend to argue here that pluralism is some kind of ultimate good (or that it is a higher good than stability); instead I would just like to point out that Plato does not pause to ask that question. He barrels forward, and none of his characters have any problem with that; they all automatically accept his premise that diversity of opinion is a great sin.
Likewise Socrates’ companions fail to properly challenge the claim that mass deception is the appropriate way to keep the disenfranchised multitude from demanding political power. Plato and his companions appear to be united in agreement: the ends justify the means. As long as the guardians maintain a perfectly stable society that never changes they are acting justly, no matter how many lies they need to tell. In this light, the famous allegory of the cave (Book VII) smells faintly of hypocrisy. Plato argues that the unenlightened individual lives in a metaphorical cave. He is chained to the wall, and what he perceives to be reality as it really is, is actually just shadows on the wall cast by the fire in the cave. Most people are trapped in this pathetic state and don’t even realize it. Only the philosopher, the seeker of truth, can unchain himself and escape to the true world above, to see the world as it really is in the light of the sun. It is then his duty to return to the cave and free the others. That’s a lovely image. But then upon reflection Plato’s blueprint for a society – where the philosopher kings use lies and deception to convince the majority of people that they have “bronze souls” and are fit for nothing better than manual labor – contradicts the image of the philosopher as liberator, and instead transforms him into philosopher as slave-master. Perhaps Plato actually sees the allegory like this: when the enlightened person returns to the cave, instead of freeing the others he should reinforce their chains so that he may rule over them like a god. Only he possesses knowledge of the truth and freedom of movement, so shouldn’t he become the overseer in the cave of lies rather than breakers of chains?
I believe that in Plato’s ideal society, a man like the historical Socrates (the real life lover of truth, not the warped version presented in Plato’s dialogue) would have been very unhappy. After all he was a breaker of chains, a man whose main concern in life was teaching others how to seek the truth. But in Plato’s state, Socrates (unless he happened to be born into the guardian class) would have not only been prevented from seeking and teaching the truth, but would have been brainwashed by the state in order to turn him into a hard working sheep, a man who never questions the rulers or the order they maintain, a man incapable of obtaining knowledge of his own world, a man chained to a cave wall. How could Plato, a teacher of philosophy, advocate such a fate for his own teacher? And why don’t the other characters in the dialogue point out this hypocrisy?
Another example: Republic is intended to be a prolonged search for the true nature of justice, and throughout the work Plato toys with many definitions of justice. But as Karl Popper2 points out, Plato fails to present, in any capacity, a concept of justice where all citizens are treated fairly and equally under the law. This understanding of justice happens to be the one to which many if not most Americans likely subscribe. Many in the West have come to understand that justice can only exist if all members of a society are treated fairly in the eyes of the law (and perhaps also economically equal, though that is hotly debated). Plato, who seems eager to explore every possible definition of justice, doesn’t even pay lip service to this egalitarian vision of justice.
One might accuse me of being anachronistic here. In other words, am I admonishing Plato for failing to grasp a definition of justice (all men are equal under the law) that only developed thousands of years after his death? To this accusation I say phooey! This egalitarian view of justice was not only present in democratic Athens, it was in vogue! Just take as one example the most famous speech to ever come out of this period, the Funeral Oration of Pericles. This great Athenian leader delivered his ringing defense of democracy just one generation before Plato, and in his speech he takes a moment to admire Athens’ devotion to the very type of egalitarian justice of which Plato seems so ignorant:
“Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens. Against this fear is our chief safeguard, teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace.”
Excerpt from Pericles’ Funeral Oration3
So clearly the idea that justice requires equal treatment for all men under the law was a prevalent idea in Plato’s time, yet Plato fails even to touch on it in Republic, his supposed inquiry into the nature of justice. I will note that despite Pericles’ beautiful words, his sentiment did not exactly match the reality on the ground. Athens’ economy was built and sustained by slave labor, and very few people in the city qualified for the “citizenship” that Pericles mentions in the excerpt above. So no, Athens’s law code did not actually treat all men (or women) equally, far from it. But at least we can confirm that this idea of justice not only existed, but seems to have been a cornerstone of Athenian culture, and the way Athenians thought and spoke about themselves.
Plato seems more interested in promoting his own world view than uncovering the honest truth about justice, or exploring perceptions of justice that oppose his own. If he was after the truth, he would allow at least one of his characters to put voice to an equality-focused notion of justice, to give it just a moment to shine before Socrates dismantles it. But this kind of justice doesn’t surface in the dialogue, and nobody involved in the dialogue seems particularly concerned by that. When Socrates proposes a “just” state where most of the people are told they have bronze souls, none of his companions find it worthwhile to ask something like, “If the majority of the citizens in our state are deceived and barred from ever seeking the truth or wielding power, isn’t it possible we treat the majority of citizens unjustly? Shouldn’t we at least consider whether justice could be found instead in a state that offers equal treatment under the law to all citizens, regardless of their wealth or caste?” It seems a reasonable enough question. There were certainly plenty of democracy-loving Athenians who would have wanted to ask just such a question of Plato if given the chance. But nobody in the dialogue asks it. When Socrates paints a picture of justice that requires the disenfranchisement of the masses, his companions simply nod along. The more I ponder these weaknesses in the dialogue, the more I question Plato’s intellectual honesty, despite his unqualified brilliance as a writer and thinker.
How about yet another example: throughout the work Socrates speaks on behalf of collectivism; he wishes to form a society where individuals are universally expected to sacrifice in order to benefit the society as a whole (individual desires and needs are subservient to the desires and needs of the state). The only character to espouse anything resembling individualism is Thrasymachus at the very beginning of the book, but he’s such a cynical, selfish nihilist that Socrates is easily able to equate individualism itself with selfishness, and (after handily beating Thrasymachus) proceed as if all arguments for individualism have been defeated. For the rest of the book individualism is only mentioned briefly, when it is ridiculed as the very embodiment of egoism and selfishness.4 For one so intellectually powerful as Plato to create a ‘dialogue’ that, though it claims to seek a perfect society, ignores completely the very concept of individualism (except to periodically ridicule it) reeks of pre-meditated concealment of the truth. Individualism, the notion that our personal desires/needs/beliefs/accomplishments/freedoms do matter, and can even outweigh the needs of the state as a collective whole, is one of the bedrocks of western culture, and I imagine that in Plato’s day many citizens of democratic Athens would have believed that individualism had a crucial role to play in any functional society. Plato does not really wish to tackle the positive aspects of individualism head-on; after all, the more positives there are, the more difficult it will be for him to maintain his collectivist society. So instead he simply asks the characters in his dialogue to remain silent on this point, and refrain from arguing in favor of individualism in any meaningful way.
(Note: it could be argued that I am fully under the spell of Plato-critic Karl Popper. It’s true that I did read Popper’s classic critique of Plato while I was reading Republic, and perhaps that was a mistake. I was so taken with Popper’s argument that Plato’s ideal society contains totalitarian elements, and it gelled so well with my own natural inclinations against Plato’s brand of idealist political philosophy, that it was difficult for me to read Plato with a completely open mind, though I certainly tried! So yes, I eagerly added the lens fashioned by Popper to my little bag of lenses. But the main argument of this essay – that Plato’s dialogue-style of writing is a cover for his faulty political theory – is my own, not Popper’s… at least I think it’s mine).
Here’s a slightly longer example: in Book II Plato builds an extensive argument that it is wise and just to censor from the great works of ancient poetry any mention of the gods misbehaving, or acting cowardly or foolish, or fighting one another, or changing shape, or anything that makes the gods seem less than perfectly good. His reasoning for this is that only through censorship of these negative portrayals of the gods can we create a truly just society full of just men. We need our gods to model virtuous behavior in order to inspire men to do the same, and therefore any tales of mischievous or naughty gods must be expunged and banished, never to enter the sweet, innocent ears of our children. Afterall if the gods act like fools, why shouldn’t we? But what’s surprising here is that for Plato this censorship is not actually a deception. In fact it’s built on a fundamental truth, the starting place of a long chain of reasoning: that the gods themselves, in the real world, must actually be perfectly good:
Socrates: God is always to be represented as he truly is, whatever be the sort of poetry, epic, lyric or tragic, in which the representation is given. Adeimantus: Right. Socrates: And is he not truly good? and must he not be represented as such? Adeimantus: Certainly. Socrates: And no good thing is hurtful? Adeimantus: No, indeed. Socrates: And that which is not hurtful hurts not? Adeimantus: Certainly not. Socrates: And that which hurts not does no evil? Adeimantus: No. Socrates: And can that which does no evil be a cause of evil? Adeimantus: Impossible. Socrates: And the good is advantageous? Adeimantus: Yes. Socrates: And therefore the cause of well-being? Adeimantus: Yes. Socrates: It follows therefore that the good is not the cause of all things, but of the good only? Adeimantus: Assuredly. Socrates: Then God, if he be good, is not the author of all things, as the many assert, but he is the cause of a few things only, and not of most things that occur to men. For few are the goods of human life, and many are the evils, and the good is to be attributed to God alone; of the evils the causes are to be sought elsewhere, and not in him. Adeimantus: That appears to me to be most true, he said.
Socrates (Plato) doesn’t attempt to prove that God is perfectly good, but instead he simply assumes it to be true. It is a theological statement of faith, not a philosophic inquiry into the true/untrue nature of the statement. And because God is perfectly good and incapable of evil, therefore all stories of God doing otherwise must be lies, and so it is just and correct to purge them from our society. Plato’s extensive program for properly educating the guardians begins with an unfounded religious sentiment dressed up like unimpeachable truth, a wild guess about the nature of the divine, an unquestioning statement of faith. From that starting place Plato constructs his ideal state, always with this ideal image of God in the background providing a foundation for the state’s theology and culture, and justification for censorship and religious persecution.
What really surprises me is Adeimantus’ behavior: he wholeheartedly accepts all of Socrates’ unfounded assumptions about the gods, and confirms without question that many beloved poems and tales are actually corruptive and evil. Though he questions Socrates elsewhere in the dialogue, here he only acts as Socrates’ hype man, confirming with certainty everything Socrates asserts. Plato needs this assumption to proceed unchallenged, since it is the first crucial building block in his political program, a program that culminates in the guardians taking firm control over all cultural, moral, and theological matters. Since this first point is so crucial, Plato refuses to allow even his most inquisitive characters to question it, even for a moment. It is taken for granted that gods must be good, and therefore the guardians’ coercive actions are just, moral, and pious. Plato constructs a totalitarian state and calls it just because it aligns with an unfounded religious claim. Why bother hosting a dialogue on these sorts of issues if not to question just this kind of underlying assumption? This is more evidence that Plato had no intention of using the dialogue format to discover fallacies in his own reasoning, but instead only to make it appear that he did so. Or as Adeimantus puts it in Book II: “…we shall say that you do not praise justice, but the appearance of it.”
Irony alert: the historical Socrates was put to death for impiety and blasphemy. In The Republic Plato transforms his beloved teacher from the real man who stood up for his own unique interpretation of the gods into a militant religious fundamentalist who seeks to establish a theocracy. Plato’s version of Socrates would never allow individuals to discover their own unique interpretations of the divine, but would instead dictate to the citizens which portrayals of the gods are acceptable and which are forbidden. If the real Socrates, despite the persecution he faced for disagreeing with certain established religious customs, truly believed that the theocracy Plato constructs in Republic would be a just society, I’d consider that an act of hypocrisy. Wouldn’t the real Socrates, the man who always claimed not to know anything, hesitate before making a decree about the true nature of the gods? Wouldn’t he instead wish to question someone who made just such a statement, and probe their reasoning to uncover hidden fallacies? It seems far-fetched that the real Socrates would ever condone a society that forces everyone to think a certain way. Yet Plato seems to have no qualms about warping Socrates from a free-thinker into a puppet, from a man who claimed to know nothing into a character with all the answers, from an honest seeker of truth into a totalitarian whose favorite tools are censorship and outright deception. (It is also easy to see how Platonism became not only the foundation for Christianity, which shares with Platonism the vision of God as being perfectly good, but also for the autocratic theocracies of the Middle Ages, which considered it sacrilege to believe anything counter to official church doctrine).
My anger here isn’t really because the word ‘dialogue’ is being misused, but because Plato’s far-fetched ideas are presented as highly logical, tightly-argued, and well-proven, when in fact the most destructive ideas are hardly given any scrutiny or face any push-back. I am bothered that there is a kind of “lie” baked into the dialogue. The lie is that Socrates/Plato have so well-argued their points, and so thoroughly defeated any counter-arguments, that their blueprints for society must be based on objective truths. Under this guise, a cock-eyed scheme is dressed up as proven science. This lie can still impact readers to this day, and the mythical status of Plato only exacerbates this; after all, who would have the audacity to challenge the world’s greatest and most famous philosopher on his most well-argued points? Who would dare tell Plato that his concept of justice is hopelessly misguided, that his arguments will only provide useful material to despots who aim to entrench their own power by using deception and force, and that his philosophy at its core represents the enslavement of mankind? I would hope that Plato would have the intellectual honesty to allow one of his characters (perhaps one who admires Athens’ democracy) to speak these words. But alas, he does not.
Ok that’s my beef with Plato. Seriously why did I even bother to write this? I feel like a gnat picking a fight with a giant.
And this all being said, I do not mean to argue that we must reject this entire dialogue, far from it. There is so much depth and richness in this dialogue, so much that provokes and inspires. It is a timeless work of genius that should be read and studied by every generation. I just personally have a problem with any political philosophy that comes with a built-in assumption that all of mankind must either accept the exact beliefs of the philosopher, or be violently suppressed. The human race is far too complicated and varied to ever subscribe to one single worldview or philosophy. So any author who wishes to force his ideas upon the whole world is really just using coded language: what he really means to say is that he wishes to be God over all of mankind, with the power to smite anyone who disagrees with his perspective, and the authority to remake the whole world as he sees fit (the way a child pretends to be the God of the make-believe world he creates out of his toys). This is my issue with Plato, with Lenin, and with anyone else who truly believes his ideas are so perfect that he can speak for the whole world: their philosophies try to force the whole human race to see things a certain way, and in the end their political programs would amount to nothing less than the wholesale persecution of the vast quantities of human beings who see the world through different lenses.
Another similarity between Plato and Lenin is that both are utopian thinkers. What makes both of these authors utopian is their failure to remember that power corrupts: both wish to arm their preferred classes (philosopher kings for Plato and proletarians for Lenin) with unmitigated power, and both expect this to go well. Plato seems to believe that if he is able to implement his ideal educational program (and of course dabble in a bit of “noble lying”), he can cure men of that disease that makes us so corruptible, or at least discover/breed just enough men in the city who can be cured of this to put together a junta. If this initiative fails, the city fails. This means that if Plato isn’t able to create (through eugenics and indoctrination) a race of super-humans who are utterly impervious to the corruptive influence of power, and who, through their study of philosophy, are no longer willing/able to use their absolute power for selfish reasons, his ideal city will collapse into tyranny. This seems to be a fragile arrangement, easily corrupted. But Plato believes that philosophy and proper education can be that cure, and he’s willing to stake everything on that. That’s what makes him a utopian.
To put it another way, he is willing to arm the rulers of his city with the Ring of Gyges (see Republic 2:359a–2:360d), to give them the power to do whatever they want and get away with it. He expects that they will behave because they are philosophers. At the same time he wishes to deprive the workers of all of the their political power, and expects them to behave because they will be subdued by the noble lie. This sort of far-fetched, utopian theory doesn’t appeal to me because of the mind-bogglingly high risk involved in arming ANY group of humans with absolute power (and depriving the majority of theirs). I just wish that in Plato’s dialogue, someone had voiced this obvious concern with the same sort of penetrating seriousness that Plato uses to lay out his political blueprint.
Really though, I might have this whole thing wrong. After all there are many ways of reading and interpreting this long and complex dialogue, so maybe I’m trying to slay demons that aren’t even there. Plato scholar David Roochnik5 argues that Plato’s main purpose in writing Republic is not to provide a blueprint for any kind of realistic city, but instead to prove that philosophy in general is a worthwhile activity (or perhaps even the highest form of good). Throughout the dialogue, Plato argues that only philosophy can turn our heads away from the shadowy world of false images and reveal the sun in all its splendor. So when he argues that the philosophers should be kings, maybe he’s just making a point about the power of philosophy, rather than developing his philosophy of power. As for Plato’s lengthy and detailed plan for his ideal city, perhaps it’s no more than an allegory for the ideal human soul, where reason and philosophy (the guardians) rule over passion (the rest of society). If this is the case, and Plato didn’t actually mean to suggest that his blueprint should ever be implemented, then I’ll hold my fire. I can never agree that what he describes could ever be an ideal city, but as an allegory for the soul it works better (at least it isn’t patently absurd like the political theory). But I don’t think Plato is clear on this point, which means that many would-be dictators could misconstrue his meaning and arm themselves with philosophical justification for developing a totalitarian regime (in the name of building an ideal state).
Frankly I consider it far-fetched that the political theory expressed in Republic is nothing more than one giant allegory, and that Plato isn’t at least partially serious about his plans. I struggle to believe that when he speaks of destroying private property and the family, of initiating a strict and pervasive program of censorship, of robbing the vast majority of citizens of any political power or upward mobility, of using dishonesty (the noble lie) to fully subjugate and pacify the public, that he is actually just being symbolic. While I agree that he is making a symbolic point about the soul and that his ideal city is an allegory, I firmly believe that he ALSO wishes to see his political program enacted in the real world. When he says his proposed city is an ideal one, I must assume he isn’t just speaking in code or constructing a puzzle that can only be solved if we assume he doesn’t mean anything he says about politics in the real world.
In the end, this dialogue is still provocative 2,500 years after it was written. It is challenging, controversial, and asks more questions than it answers. Plato clearly understands that his words can be interpreted in many different ways, and he seems to revel in this. This is one of the features that makes this dialogue so enjoyable and frustrating to read. Plato isn’t clear whether he is serious about his proposals or simply being ironic, or if his political program is one giant symbol, or whether is believes that his ideal city would be beneficial to mankind but is sadly unattainable, or whether his intention is actually to initiate his proposed policies. He lets the reader decide, which leads to the conclusion that the real point of this dialogue is to make people think (and to inspire people to write articles like this one). So please do read Plato, and let him provoke you. His ideas will certainly get you thinking, and may open many doors in your mind! But when you read it, don’t think that just because Plato says something it must be true. He was, after all, just a man. He had his own agenda, his own shortcomings, his own fears, his own pride. His ideas are just one small piece of the infinite tapestry composed of all the ideas generated by mankind across the centuries. So read his work, let it challenge you, but for goodness sake challenge it right back whenever you spot something that doesn’t add up. Plato’s characters don’t really challenge most of the far-fetched plans laid out over the course of the dialogue, but I hope that Plato the philosopher would be appreciative if we, the readers, do just that.
Notes:
- Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1945), 115.
- Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, Volume One: The Spell of Plato, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971), Ch. 6.
- Pericles, “Funeral Oration” in The History of the Peloponessian War by Thucydides (431 BC), Ch. 6.
- Popper, 100-106.
- David Roochnik, “Book X – Philosophy versus Poetry,” The Great Courses: Plato’s Republic, (The Teaching Company, 2005), Lecture 21.
2022 Book Reviews
September – December 2022
Main Currents of Marxism, Volume One: The Founders by Leszek Kołakowski
The Apology of Socrates by Plato
You can find my thoughts on Apology here:
1st read: philosophy as a pious act
2nd read: the folly of trying to prove that nobody knows anything
Histories (The Persian Wars) by Herodotus
July – August 2022
The Cambridge Companion to Marx edited by Terrell Carver
Marxism: Philosophy and Economics by Thomas Sowell
The German Ideology by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
April – June 2022
Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume One by Karl Marx
A Companion to Marx’s Capital by David Harvey
The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Socialism: Utopian and Scientific by Friedrich Engels
March 2022
Great Courses: The Modern Political Tradition: Hobbes to Habermas by Lawrence Cahoone
February 2022
India After Gandhi by Ramachandra Guha
January 2022
Great Courses: A Historian Goes to the Movies: Ancient Rome by Gregory S. Aldrete
First reading of Plato’s Apology: philosophy as a pious act
The great philosopher Socrates, on trial for his life, faces the jury and prepares to defend himself. An array of trumped-up charges have been leveled against him, namely impiety, corrupting the youth, and turning “the weaker argument into the stronger.” The entire affair is a thinly-veiled attempt to silence a steadfast and incorruptible voice that has been speaking truth to power for decades. The accusers are powerful and well-connected Athenians who eagerly hope he will be exiled (or, fingers-crossed, put to death). The nature of the charges are irrelevant; the point is to destroy Socrates by whichever means are available. A trial seems a most expedient tactic.
It’s no big surprise that Socrates is on the receiving end of this indictment: he has spent his whole career making enemies of powerful citizens with his incessant habit of publicly cross-examining anyone who considers himself to be wise or moral. Socrates openly acknowledges as much: “The effect of this questioning, fellow Athenians, was to earn me much hostility of a very vexing and trying sort, which has given rise to numerous slanders.”1 The more citizens he interrogated – whether they be politicians, priests, lawyers, poets, or craftsmen – the more he discovered ignorance masquerading as wisdom, and also (to his “dismay and alarm”) the more enemies he made. Now during the great political upheavals taking place in the aftermath of Athens’ devastating and humiliating defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, the enemies of Socrates see a golden opportunity to finally take their revenge on the annoying old trouble maker, by painting him not just as a public nuisance but as a scapegoat for all of Athens’ woes.
Socrates’ main defense against the accusation of impiety is that the gods themselves commanded him to do as he had always done: to perform philosophy, cross-examine any who claimed to be wise, and point out flawed logic wherever he encountered it. Socrates explains: “Why then, you may ask, do some people enjoy spending so much time in my company?… My listeners enjoy the examination of those who think themselves wise but are not, since the process is not unamusing. But for me, I must tell you, it is a mission which I have been bidden to undertake by the god, through oracles and dreams, and through every means whereby a divine injunction to perform any task has ever been laid upon a human being.” This was a divine command, so therefore Socrates must continue these activities at all cost, even if in the process he makes enemies out of the most powerful and influential Athenians – even if in the end it costs him his very life.
By following this command, Socrates is in fact demonstrating every day his devotion to the gods, proving his piety through the very actions for which he has been condemned: practicing philosophy, teaching, and questioning the powerful. Socrates makes it clear that he will continue to follow this command even unto death, that the gods must be obeyed. When he ponders aloud what his reaction would be if the jury decided to free him on the condition that he give up philosophy forever, he declares, “I have the greatest fondness and affection for you, fellow Athenians, but I will obey my god rather than you; and so long as I draw breath and am able, I shall never give up practicing philosophy… and you may let me go or not, as you please, because there is no chance of my acting otherwise, even if I have to die many times over.” Socrates is willing to sacrifice his very life in order to pursue what he perceives to be a religious agenda, an order from heaven to practice philosophy. Following this logic, he should not only be set free but honored, because clearly he is one of Athens’ most pious men.
Of course this defense doesn’t work against the jury, who ultimately condemn him to die by poisoning. When his sentence is proclaimed, Socrates makes it abundantly clear that he has no regrets, that he is not scared, and that he will never stop. After all, why should a death sentence scare an old man, when death is already close at hand? And why should the condemnation by a group of small-minded individuals bother a man who perpetually seeks truth and wisdom at the behest of the gods themselves? The unending search for truth and the endeavor to truly understand our world (and make others understand too) are divine imperatives, and Socrates will be blessed for having dedicated his life to these efforts. In the end, philosophy is not just a noble profession, but a mission worth dying for, and one that is sanctioned and encouraged by the gods.
And thus in this light, the book reads like prophesy. The gods order Socrates never to stop questioning the powerful, never to stop teaching, even if the authorities put him to death. This execution (which Socrates could have easily avoided by simply agreeing to stop being a gadfly, or by accepting exile) stunned and mortified his disciples, especially his brilliant student Plato. Plato was so affected by the death of Socrates, that he wrote a series of dialogues wherein Socrates takes the starring role, representing the ultimate seeker of truth and wisdom, the figure who exists to unmask the liars and those who fool themselves, the teacher who shows us a whole new way of understanding reality: through the lens of the Socratic method. Plato’s vision of the legendary Socrates (which is the Socrates we encounter in this very book) went on to inspire and guide philosophers across the globe for the next 2,500 years, making Socrates one of the most influential men who has ever lived. In this way the prophesy of the gods was fulfilled, since only through his unjust execution could Socrates ultimately spread his crucial message to such a wide audience that transcends time itself.
Would we even know the name of Socrates, if he had agreed to stop teaching to spare his own life? Would Plato have turned him into a symbol of truth and justice if he hadn’t followed the gods’ orders? Would the message that philosophy and the search for truth are worth dying for have taken root among the countless thinkers who have dedicated their lives to that endeavor, if Socrates had chosen not to martyr himself for the cause? The gods seemed to know from the start that the only way to teach mankind that we must never abandon the search for truth was to ask a man to lay his own life on the line for that very purpose. Only through that example could the lesson be brought home, and a whole world of philosophers be inspired enough to dedicate their lives to that same effort. That’s the prophesy that Socrates, who seems to me to be more pious than any of his accusers, fulfilled.
Notes
- I use the translation of Apology by David Gallop, appearing in John Perry, Michael Bratman, and John Martin Fischer, eds., Introduction to Philosophy : Classical and Contemporary Readings, Seventh Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
Embarking on a course of study: Marxism
So I’ve decided to become an expert on Marxism.
Why? Well that’s a good question. Let me come back to that.
My ultimate goal is this: I want to do something about climate change. How can becoming an expert on Marxism help fight the climate battle? I’m not exactly sure, but that’s what I hope to find out.
First let me talk for a moment about climate change. It isn’t like the other political issues of our time. Sure when most media figures talk about gun control, abortion, voting rights, minimum wage laws, free trade, etc., they act as if the world itself hangs in the balance. But climate change stands above all those other issues. It is a real-life bona fide existential threat to humankind. When I picture in my mind the tribulation my children and grandchildren will face because of climate change, and the ambivalent responses our so-called leaders tend to offer toward addressing the crisis, I’m left feeling empty inside. The sense of frustration, impotence, and hopelessness are intense, I can hardly bear to engage with the issue whatsoever. Climate change is the reason I gave up watching cable news a few years ago; I simply can’t stomach to watch politicians and media outlets obsess about small-ball issues while ignoring or down-playing the actual looming threat that is staring us directly in our faces.
There are many reasons why politicians and corporate media outlets choose to ignore or downplay climate change, or pretend it isn’t caused by human activity, or cast doubts upon climate science itself as a field of study, but I will not go into that here. The point is that I want to do something about climate change. I want to contribute any way I can.
But how?
It just isn’t possible for me to change jobs and start working at a climate-focused non-profit, at least not right now. We have two young children who need our love, time, attention – and our financial stability. Our son Charlie has leukemia, so we need a good healthcare plan and a steady enough income to pay hospital bills. The point is that I can’t simply leave my job and go work for some organization that studies carbon capture technology. I have people who depend on me, so my life must maintain a certain level of stability for their sake. I won’t be switching careers just yet.
I’m also not a scientist. I do not have the necessary knowledge or credentials to work as a climate researcher. I would love to help advance the crucial research efforts that are taking place on the frontier of climate science, but that kind of research is not my strong suit. So I won’t be joining the army of citizen scientists who are seeking some kind of scientific solution to this problem.
And If I am being completely honest, I’m probably also not cut out to play an active role in a climate-focused political party either. Maybe it’s because I just don’t do particularly well with committee politics. Put me in a situation where I’m a member of a committee and we need to discuss and decide on an important issue, and I completely lose my mojo. Maybe I’m a bit too outspoken and tactless when debates gets started, which is not a helpful trait if one is trying to build up a fledgling political party (or trying to talk politics with friends). Or it could be that I have problems with authority; this has been suggested at various times in my life. So I’m not sure entering into party politics is the right path for me. I would still like to join a climate-focused party, but I’d prefer a behind-the-scenes role.
So what the heck can I do to help? How can a guy with no science background or political acumen, possessing very little free time or spending money, contribute to the most critical scientific and political problem facing mankind? I had to turn this problem over in my mind for a long while. What I came up with is this: I can write.
Maybe by writing I can be of some use. But what will I write about? Well I’m not sure about that yet either. I’ve never been especially serious about writing, though I’ve always known I have a certain knack for it. Thus far I’ve mostly only written about music composition. But I feel an intense urge to write something, anything, that might help with this cause. The motivation is there, so maybe that’s how I can play my small part, how I can help move the ball down the field.
Ultimately what I want to write about is not science but philosophy, political philosophy to be exact. Political philosophers study how people solve big problems, and sometimes they develop potential (or even groundbreaking) solutions to those problems. Climate change is the biggest problem we (our species) may ever face, so studying how our species can best respond to the crisis seems a fitting use of my time. Perhaps through philosophy I can help develop some workable solutions, collaborate with others on larger projects, find a suitable role for myself in a climate-focused party, and make some kind of impact. It’s a long shot I know, but it’s better than where I’ve been up to now: frustrated to such an extent at my inability to help in any way, that extreme apathy is my only weapon against despair.
I’ve chosen Marxism as my starting point. Marxism is a philosophical tradition that focuses on critiquing systems that are unjust, exploitative, and oppressive. It rips the mask off and reveals all the layers of rot lying beneath the surface, all the contradictions and lies. It also proposes (sometimes revolutionary) solutions to these problems; it is not a tradition that supports empty theorizing, but instead it seeks to pair theory with actual practice. In other words, Marxism takes a stab at understanding and solving big problems. So I will start there, and see what it has to offer. I’m not sure whether the solutions Marxism proposes will be worth a damn in the climate fight, but as I said it’s a starting place.
I am no expert in Marxism, so I will have to start from scratch. This is going to mean an intense course of study, and hopefully a lot of writing as I process these new ideas (new to me anyways). I genuinely wish to discover what concepts/philosophies/worldviews/lenses exist in the Marxist tradition, and whether any of them can actually be put to good use solving the climate crisis in the real world. And while there is a relatively new thread of Marxist thought that specifically examines the intersection of Marxism and environmentalism (see as an example: Organic Marxism – An Alternative to Capitalism and Ecological Catastrophe by Philip Clayton and Justin Heinzekehr), I will not start my course of study with environmental Marxism. I will start instead with Karl Marx’s own writings, and from there I will branch out into the writings of his predecessors and peers, and then onto the many diverse writers who took Marx’s worldview and extended it in so many directions. Along the way I will also read critiques of Marx and Marxism, as well as writers from other philosophical traditions who shared their views on Marxism, and whatever other angles I haven’t thought of yet. I’m looking to dive deep into this tradition, and see if I come out a changed man on the other side.
I am not starting this endeavor as a Marxist. Though my political leanings have always been on the left, I do not at this time call myself a Marxist, nor do I exactly understand what that even means. Can one be a Marxist if he simply concurs with Marx’s critique of capitalism? Or does one also have to believe in Marx’s vision of a future communist utopia to call oneself Marxist? For that matter, what did Marx really say about the future? Did he really advocate for a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” or was that just something Lenin added in? Did Marx actually believe that we could usher in communism via a worldwide revolution, or was that more of a metaphor for long-term change? How much of Marxism is just pure critique of the status quo, and how much consists of potential solutions to our problems? I want to know what this tradition has to offer a sick, sad world on the brink of ecological collapse. If there is anything useful in there, I want to learn it.
I also plan to separate out the parts of the tradition that are beyond saving: hopelessly outdated analyses, advocacy of programs for which the destructive or dangerous results far out-weigh potential benefits, one-sided or fallacious or propagandistic philosophical reasoning, and critique of a long-past world whose relevance to our own has faded beyond usefulness. One could say I am hunting for a “workable” Marxism, a “realistic” Marxism, one with real applicability in the modern world, shed of its darker or utopian elements. I seek in Marxism a tool that can be harnessed to bring beneficial change. I’m not sure at this time how much of this mission is possible. Critics tell me that it isn’t at all possible. It seems that most conservative (and many liberal) pundits want me to believe that 1) Marxism is evil and dangerous, 2) it will necessarily lead to the destruction of freedom, democracy, our children, religion, America, everything we hold dear, etc., and 3) it is also hopelessly irrelevant, a product of the 19th century that belongs in the dustbin of history. But listening to those guys – those corporate pundits whose large paychecks depend on their ability to endlessly and relentlessly flog Marxism – I get the impression they are really saying “whatever you do, don’t look over there! Don’t question capitalism. The status quo is perfect. Don’t look behind the curtain!” Well I intend to take a peek.
I recognize that Marxism has a checkered past. This philosophical/economic system has been blamed for many epic historical catastrophes, including genocides and totalitarianisms. I intend to discover exactly how the writings of Karl Marx are linked across the generations to Stalinism. I am going to learn in what ways those views were distorted or adapted by myriad thinkers and politicians and polemicists along the way. I want to examine the good and the bad of this tradition, with the intention of cutting out the bad parts and salvaging only what is useful. Are there parts of the Marxist philosophical framework that differ wildly from the dystopian Stalinist nightmare many Americans picture when they think about Marxism, or is totalitarianism the inevitable result of Marxism? Can we have Marxism without secret police, without gulags, without severe limitations on personal freedoms? For that matter, can we have Marxism without revolution, without violence? Based on what I’ve read so far, Marxist scholars have many disagreements on these questions.
Though many Americans likely picture Stalin as the timeless symbol of Marxism, in reality Stalinism is but one thin branch of the enormous Marxist tree. At this early stage in my studies I can already conclude that there is no longer just “one Marxism,” but many. During the past 150 years, a wide range of Marxist scholars and authors have weighed in on this tradition, each adding his or her own unique spin, each adapting or modernizing the tradition to meet the realities of the author’s time, each taking it in a new and exciting direction. In fact Marxism has become like a huge cave with countless labyrinthine tunnels; I plan to explore these tunnels and see where they lead (or where they dead-end). Of course not only Marxists have weighed in on Marxism; moral philosophers, feminists, economists, political scientists, and legal scholars have all explored how Marxism can weave and intertwine with these various disciplines. On top of that, a handful of countries have attempted to implement Marxist programs, and each time the result has been that Marxism combines with the culture of that country and comes away changed (and also Marxism changes the culture of the country as well). To make the tradition even more complex, modern Marxist organizations and parties are each contributing their own novel ingredients to the stew.
Despite all this vibrancy and diversity of thought, Marxism has been declared a dead tradition countless times (especially after the fall of the Soviet Union). Yet the tradition continues to attract talented writers and intellectuals to this day. I suspect there is something of monumental value here, and I intend to seek it out – and to disregard all that is toxic. So I’m aiming for that workable form of Marxism. And if that turns out not to exist (or if it only exists in such a corrupted form that it decays quickly or does more harm than good), then at least I’ll know that. But I’m hoping it exists! Above all, I hope that the collected wisdom of the Marxist tradition can actually help us fix our big problems.
This is only my first step toward becoming a political philosopher; Marxism is just my starting place. I’m uncertain where this study will lead me, but I intend to go as deep into it as I can. I intend to take it seriously. And of course I will always keep in mind my over-arching long-term goal: to work on climate change. But I still need to start somewhere. This starting point will allow me to work on my research/writing chops, build up a kind of foundational knowledge that will make it easier to jump into other areas of study later, and perhaps even uncover unforeseen truths that will help me build a philosophical system of my very own someday.
This graphic lays out the steps of my very rough “how I will help fight climate change” plan:
Obviously there are a lot of gaps in there. I’ll work on filling those in as I go. You may also notice that “enroll in a university” is not currently listed on there. Let me just say that I would love to pursue a higher degree in political philosophy. If I get the opportunity to do so, I will jump at it. However at this moment in my life that just isn’t feasible. I have neither the time nor the money to become an academic – though becoming an academic is my secret dream. Maybe when my kids are older I will make the jump, a step which is probably crucial if I actually wish to accomplish my goals. Not only would I learn so much from having peers and teachers (rather than studying alone), but the academic life would also give me the opportunity to build networks of friends and colleagues, professors and mentors, publishers and journals contributors. If I ever wish to see my work published outside of this website, those connections will be critical. Not to mention that the academic life gives one the opportunity to shine, if one sees fit to take up the challenge. There are endless research opportunities, access to the best libraries in the world, and colleagues with whom to collaborate on writing projects and new ideas; in other words universities offer a support network for those who wish to take their studies seriously, and a platform for those who want to break new ground. I believe I could rise to that occasion if given the opportunity, but that is for another day.
You may also wish to know why I don’t simply skip all the rigamarole and get straight to helping. Why not simply start writing about climate change right now, instead of going through all those extra steps? Why wait!
My answer is: I don’t want to just write about climate change. I don’t want to be a pundit, simply commenting on the here and now (as if I could even do that properly without research). I want to develop solutions! But I don’t feel ready to do that yet; I don’t feel like I know enough. I don’t know what’s possible or what’s been tried. I don’t have foundational knowledge on my topic – not the science of climate change, nor the political philosophies that might address it. If I hastily crank out a bunch of essays right now without doing any research, they will be full of factual or logical errors. They would certainly demonstrate my ignorance and lack of erudition on my topic, but probably would not accomplish much more than that. No, I need to do some studying first. I need to learn how to think and write and argue like a philosopher.
So onto Marx then!
Selected Writings by Marx and Engels
- “On the Jewish Question” by Karl Marx
- Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 by Karl Marx
- The German Ideology by Karl Max and Friedrich Engels
- Capital (3 vols.) by Karl Marx
- Manifesto of the Communist Party by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
- The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte by Karl Marx
- Critique of the Gotha Program by Karl Marx
- Socialism: Utopian and Scientific by Friedrich Engels
- Anti-Dühring by Friedrich Engels
- Revolution and Counter Revolution by Friedrich Engels
Some areas I plan to explore:
- Marx’s general contributions to philosophical/political thought
- Marxism and Rights/Liberty
- Marxism and Materialism
- Marxism and Humanism
- Marxism’s views on parliamentarism (using the state apparatus to create change)
- Marxism’s different views on revolution
- Marxism and Moral Philosophy
- Marxism and Religion
- Marxism and Political Violence
- Marxism vs. Anarchism
- Marxism and Science (Marxism is sometimes called a science)
- Marxism and Grand Prophesies about the Future
- Marxism and Human Nature
- Marxism and Democracy
- Marxism and the Dialectic
- Criticism of Marxism
- Distortions of Marx’s Ideas (i.e. how the ideas changed over time)
- Marxism and its application in various countries
- Marxism today (current Marxist movements/groups/parties and the arguments/tactics they employ)
- Marxism and Environmentalism
I’m not particularly interested in writing an exhaustive study of how Karl Marx discussed certain themes or issues. I’m not after finding the ultimate orthodox Marxism. Instead I want to study the tradition, which outlived Marx and changed in countless ways as later scholars and thinkers expanded the tradition. The tradition lives on to this day, and changes every time a new writer picks it up. This allows the tradition to change with the times, and adapt to humankind’s changing needs. It’s a living tradition.
Here are some of the different thinkers and schools of thought I plan to study:
- Predecessors: Epicurus, Democritus, Aristotle, Lucretius, Fourier, Proudhon, Robert Owen, Spinoza, Hegel
- Classical Marxists: Marx, Engels, Karl Kautsky, Rosa Luxembourg
- Social democrats and reformists: Bebel, Liebknecht, Eduard Bernstein, Lasalle
- Leninists and Trotskyists: Lenin, Trotsky (perhaps also Alex Callinicos, Perry Anderson, Hal Draper – not sure if these guys would actually call themselves Leninists).
- Western Marxists: Lukacs, Antonio Gramsci, Karl Korsch, Ernst Bloch. Sometimes included: Bertolt Brecht, Wilhelm Reich, Erich Fromm, Alfred Sohn-Rethel
- Frankfurt School: Horkheimer, Marcuse, Habermas, Adorno, Leo Lowenthal, Walter Benjamin, Alfred Schmidt
- French Hegelians: Henri Lefebvre, Lucien Goldmann
- Existentialist Marxists: Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Simone de Beauvoir
- Anti humanist, anti-Hegelian Marxists: Althusser, Galvano Della Volpe
- Autonomist Marxists: Tony Negri, Harry Cleaver, Michael Hardt, John Holloway
- Analytical Marxists (anti-dialectic): GA Cohen, Jon Elster, Adam Przeworski, John Roemer, Robert Brenner
- English Marxists: Maurice Dobb, Christopher Caudwell, Maurice Cornforth, Raymond Williams
- Neo-Marxists (Post-Marxists): Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis
- Marxist historians: Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm
- Marxist writers working today: Philip Clayton, Justin Heinzekehr, Zizek, and many many more.
- Critics of Marx: Leszek Kolakowski, Thomas Sowell, Friedrich Hayek, Ludwig Von Mises, and many many more.
This endeavor may not actually lead anywhere useful, but it feels good to try something. It feels right to learn and better myself and expand my mind, even if climate change still kills us all in the end. But who knows, maybe I’ll learn something that makes a difference to someone somewhere. All I can do is try.
2021 Book Reviews
December 2021
The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad by Fareed Zakaria
November 2021
Debating Democracy by Bruce Miroff, Raymond Seidelman, and Todd Swanstrom
Great Courses: The Big Questions of Philosophy by David Kyle Johnson
October 2021
After Virtue by Alasdair MacIntyre
The Bhagavad Gita (translated by Eknath Easwaran)
September 2021
Philosophy 101 by Paul Kleinman
The Great Courses: Moral Decision Making: How to Approach Everyday Ethics by Clancy Martin
State and Revolution by Vladimir Lenin
August 2021
On Violence by Hannah Arendt
The Great Courses: Quest for Meaning: Values, Ethics, and the Modern Experience by Robert H. Kane
July 2021
The Great Courses: Meaning of Life: Perspectives from the World’s Great Intellectual Traditions by Jay L. Garfield
May-June 2021
An Introduction to Political Philosophy by Jonathan Wolff
April 2021
Einstein: His Life and Universe by Walter Isaacson
March 2021
Two Years Before the Mast by Richard Henry Dana
February 2021
Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess by Bobby Fischer
The Great Courses: Redefining Reality: The Intellectual Implications of Modern Science by Steven Gimbel
January 2021
Great Ideas in Classical Physics by Steven Pollock
Meetings with Remarkable Manuscripts by Christopher De Hamel
